p-Mumuye The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. [69] This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly cultural superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. Fifteen are glossed as names of plants or loose categories of plants. *t: . Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic are also spoken north of the Sahara so it must be assumed that the speakers of these "dialects" migrated north likewise, though perhaps separately from the Boreafrasian speakers (Dalby, p.6). with pre-PAA root *way thus having been a n. or adj. If you are not satisfied with 225345861639 p-Fula-Sereer [75] Proponents of an African origin of Afroasiatic assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic African hunter-gatherers,[76] arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. innovation: derivation of v. 'to sleep' by addition of *n non-fin. Root Structure Patterning in Proto-Kartvelian. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. Dictionary - Vladimir E. Orel 2015-11-02 This dictionary is a fundamental source of information on the extinct proto-language of the ancient Hamito-Semites, the Proto-Hamito-Semitic language, and . Originally Posted by gihanga.rwanda. innovation: integration of *t dur. [156] It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;[157] the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well. Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. Dogon [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. p-Upper Cross River [79], An African origin has broad scholarly support,[75] and is favored by most linguists on the basis of the linguistic data. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. [98] AA languages tend to have pharyngeal fricative consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing and . The proto-language of each Afroasiatic branch developed its own distinct vocabulary of food production, further supporting the view that herding and cultivation emerged separately in each branch after the proto-Afroasiatic period ( 7, 8 ). innovation: 'send' > 'direct,' hence 'command, rule'), (Agaw *a allows PAA vowel reconstructions *a, *aa, *o, or *e), (Sem., Eg. innovation: narrowing of meaning to beating time to music), (Eg., Sem. [54] However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Classification and Index of the Worlds Languages. p-Chadic These records make it possible to classify and reconstruct many languages. This original biblical genealogy reflected political rather than linguistic realities: thus the Canaanites are descendants of Ham, although their language is closely related to Hebrew, and the Elamites are descendants of Shem, although their language is not related to Hebrew at all. In current scholarship, the most common names used for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. [163] Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive'. Voegelin, C.F. innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. [137][d] Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. [139], Nouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). p-Koman In the above model, Taforalt draws about half of their ancestry (you can call this ANA) from a population that also (likely through a sister population) contributes the . Olukumi *kop-sole (of foot . This name is possibly based upon the root "-b-r" ( . [182], Unlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. [29] Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be endangered of going extinct. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. Jalaa p-Gbe (Fongbe) (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. ), (Sem., Eg. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by August Ludwig von Schlzer in 1781. [103], A form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. The Proto-Afroasiatic Consonant System. [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. innovation: 'fold over, bend'), (Eg., Sem. p-Semitic, Khoisan [30] Most Chadic languages are located in the Chad basin, with the exception of Hausa. The "s-causative" may be reflected in Hausa (as -r), however this may be a language internal development. Therefore the root is considered ktb. When looking for roots it is important to remember that early Semitic only had consonants and vowels had to be inferred from the context (Atlas, p.78-79). shared innovation: 'raise' > 'lift, pick up'; probable further Ch., Eg., Sem. Tiefo Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. [100], All or most branches of AA have a contrast between voiceless, voiced, and "emphatic" consonants. . innovation: 'increase' > 'grow fat, thicken'), (root #141 + *n n. Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. [42] Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt,[43] but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church. There are approximately 400 Afroasiatic languages, either living or recorded but extinct. FOR SALE! Dalby, Andrew. [180] Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). [181] Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. (Though I found no mention of the origin of Semito-, it is possible that this name comes from Shem, another son of Noah). p-Jukunoid p-Benue-Congo I.2.1. ; short vowel required by derived verb #399), calabash (used as container, utensil, etc. US$62.00 (softcover). !Kung, Bangime p-Aroid innovation: addition of * concisive to denote short, concentrated outflow, hence vomiting), (Sem., Eg. [135] In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis). [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. [11] In 1855, Ernst Renan named these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, "Hamitic," in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876 Friedrich Mller first described them as a "Hamito-Semitic" language family. ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . the ancient Egypto-Semitic evidence. Due to isolation, Icelandic has changed the least and is most similar to Old Norse, and therefore probably also to Proto-Germanic. Kujarge Gumuz [184] Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. Kanuri [8][9] Other proposed names which have not found widespread acceptance among the linguistic community include Erythraic, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. [144], A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state." Bendi [193][194], Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. p-Ukaan [136] These so-called "internal a" or "broken" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. p-Tuu In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. [101] It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless. It typically comprises Kartvelian, Indo-European, and Uralic languages; some languages from the disputed Altaic family; the Afroasiatic languages spoken in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East; and the Dravidian languages of the Indian Subcontinent (sometimes also Elamo-Dravidian, which connects India and the It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. [192] Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. Semitic speakers moved into the Fertile Crescent and "emerg[ed] into history" by bringing Akkadian (a Semitic language) into what is now Iraq, a previously Sumerian-speaking area (Dalby ,p6). [49], There there are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:[7]. ), (Eg., Sem. V. V. ven. [174] It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. Sumerian- tamil links ( included links with turkish ( said to be closed to sumerian by panturkists which also said dravidian and turkish cognated when we know dravidians were first people of asia coming from black african L3haplogroup), yeniseian ( intermediate between turkish and chinese and member of sino caucasian family that links chinese to north caucesian langages who according to . Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. Its words and roots are not directly attested in any written works, but have been reconstructed through the comparative method, which finds regular similarities between languages that cannot be explained by coincidence or word-borrowing, and extrapolates ancient forms from these similarities. [74], There is no consensus on when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. The Egyptian prefix has a middle voice/intransitive/or passive meaning. Mimi-N A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago , that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. Consider also the debate over the origins of the Afroasiastic or Afrasan languages and cultures, a linguistic group with a wide geographical distribution covering the Middle East and Northern. C. innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. + stem; PS *lisn 'tongue' is a separate and distinct derivation from the same verb root), (Sem., Eg., Ch. [11] Because the term "Afroasiatic" could be taken to mean that the family includes all the languages of Africa and Asia, the term "Afrasian" is sometimes used instead; this name was proposed by Igor Diakonoff (1980) and is mostly used by Russian scholars. "[81] The African languages of Afroasiatic are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in an Asian AA homeland while all other branches had spread from there. [124] Other scholars argue that Proto-AA had a pitch accent and some branches subsequently developed tone. [99] In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all. Of all of the languages in the Afro-Asiatic line, Arabic is the most widely spoken language, stretching from Western Africa to the Middle East (ELL, p.51). innovation: addition of *w inchoative to stem), (root #866 with *-u- tr. Berkeley: University of California Press. Afroasiatic is generally considered to be comprised of the language families Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Omotic, and Semitic. p-Ijaw Pr. [40] Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. The only branch that's actually E is Berber. *kanf-/*kinf-wing: 325. innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. Proto-Nostratic would have been spoken between 15,000 and 12,000 BCE, in the Epipaleolithic period, close to the end of the last glacial period. [103][53] In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. [6] Meredith Holt There is no consensus regarding the location of the Proto-Semitic Urheimat; scholars hypothesize that it may have originated in the Levant, the Sahara, or the Horn of Africa, and the view that it arose in the Arabian Peninsulahas also been common historically. innovation: narrowing of application of v. to angry calling out), (Sem., Cush, innovation: > n. 'covering' > 'rind, bark'), (root #447+ * iter. ), to extend, stretch out (intr. ; semantics: from closed- to open-ended action), to be wrong, bad, ill; do or function wrongly, (Eg., Ch. [106] The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. [140] A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. to domestic animals in general, then narrowing in PS and Eg. [130], The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches - but not all languages - of the Afroasiatic family. [67][68], An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship - and the history of African linguistics - was the creation of the "Hamitic theory" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources p-Fali p-North Bauchi One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. p-Maji [50], Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages, including Hebrew, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. Bomhard postulates that from Proto-Afroasiatic (henceforth PAA), Chadic was the first to break off. [154] In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, and some Chadic languages, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given verb are dependent on the vocalic template. [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. [2] With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are exclusively native to the African continent. ), (Berber, Eg. Kadu 6), (Eg., Sem., Cush. suff. Proto-Afroasiatic is a language and NOT an ethnicity: Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia There is no proof where the Afroasiatic languages originated, but the oldest Afroasiatic language writing has been found in Egypt and dated 6000 years. [20], The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. The following list of Proto-Afroasiatic reconstructions is from Ehret (1995). Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. p-Potou-Akanic p-Nubian p-Akokoid [13] Each of Noah's sons was traditionally presented as being the common ancestor of several apparently-related people groups, with Shem understood by the original audience as being the common ancestor of the Jews, Assyrians, and Arameans, among others, and Ham seen as the ancestor of the Egyptians and Cushites. [25][26], There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. ; Sem., Eg. Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . Ayere-Ahan suff. South Bauchi tr. p-Maban xvii + 557. [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. An Encyclopedia of Language. The Sumerian and Etruscan languages, usually regarded as language isolates, are thought by some to be Nostratic languages as well. The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). p-Mande (p-W. Mandep-Mandekanp-Niger-Voltap-S. Mande) Omotic and Cushitic followed the example and split together, as did Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic in another group. suff. * "The Origins of Third Consonants in Semitic Roots: An Internal Reconstruction (Applied to Arabic)," Journal of Afroasiatic Languages 3, 2 (1989): 109-202. Oko [22] Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. p-Omotic [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). [117] In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of epenthesis). i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. Because i notice in some cases, they seem to have vowels shifting around quite a bit, akin to the trilateral root systems of the semitic languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA. TV. shared innovation: 'move, take' > 'take hold of'), (Cush., Ch., Eg., Sem. Momo innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. [99] Allan Bomhard's own reconstructions of Proto-Afroasiatic roots (and phonology) seem to be biased toward Proto-Indo-European and Nostratic roots . Afroasiatic. The most up to . [4] The most widely spoken modern Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum by far is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. [15] Mller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. ), (root #695 + *f iter.? Pp. [107] Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. [68] Greenberg also proposed that Hausa was part of a Chadic branch of Afroasiatic, and that Afroasiatic consisted of five main branches, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. 2.12. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed, Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of. The Subclassification of Afroasiatic (Afrasian) Appendix 1. [130][164] In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. [88], Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). Afrasian. sing. 1995. [77], Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found [64] The French orientalist Guillaume Postel had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and Hiob Ludolf noted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701.
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proto afroasiatic roots